Includes bibliographical notes and references.

Table of Contents
List of Tables viii
Figure Captions ix
Background and overview xi
1. What is sustainable development? Concepts and constraints 1
1.1. Sustainability of human society 1
Sustainability in an evolving world can only mean 1
sustainable development
Different concepts of sustainable development 2
1.2. Sustainable development is constrained by what is accessible 3
Constraints of physical conditions and laws of nature: 4
not everything is possible
Constraints of human nature and human goals: 5
not everything is desirable
Constraints of time: dynamics and evolution determine 6
pace and direction
1.3. Sustainable development requires systems information 6
Indicators provide comprehensive information about 7
the systems shaping sustainable development
2. How to recognize sustainable development? 8
Looking for indicators
2.1. The difficulty: so many systems and variables to watch 8
Recognizing patterns: understanding from a few indicators 8
Indicators summarize complex information of value 9
to the observer
Being fully informed means watching relevant indicators 9
for all vital aspects of a development
Two types of indicators: for the viability of a system and for 10
its contribution to the performance of another system
2.2. A critique of popular indicators of development: missing 11
vital information
Keep it simple: pitfalls of watching a single indicator 11
A single indicator like GDP cannot capture all vital aspects 12
of sustainable development
Aggregate indexes are an improvement, but aggregation 12
can conceal serious deficits
Indicators for Sustainable Development: Theory, Method, Applications
A Report to the Balaton Group
iii
Measuring sustainability: ecological footprint 13
and barometer of sustainability
Ad hoc or trial-and-error selection of indicators 13
is inadequate
Pressure–state–response frameworks fail to account 13
for system relationships and dynamics
A systems approach is required to structure the search 14
for indicators
2.3. Sustainable development is coevolution of human 17
and natural systems
In a systems view of sustainable development six 17
essential subsystems can be distinguished
The six subsystems correspond to potentials that 18
must be sustainably maintained
The six subsystems can be aggregated to three subsystems: 19
human system, support system, natural system
3. What does sustainability of a system imply? 20
Orientors of viability
3.1.Using systems theory to identify the vital aspects of 20
sustainable development and relevant indicators
The task: defining a framework and a process for 20
finding a set of indicators
Essential system concepts 20
Hierarchy and subsidiarity facilitate efficient operation 21
Subsystems contribute to the viability of the total system 22
Essential information about system viability and 23
performance is contained in (1) the states (stocks)
and (2) the rates of change (flows) of a system
Viability is determined both by the system 24
and its environment
3.2. Fundamental properties of system environments 25
General properties of system environments must be 25
reflected in fundamental orientations of systems
System environments are characterized by six 27
fundamental environmental properties
Each of the environmental properties is unique 28
Indicators for Sustainable Development: Theory, Method, Applications
A Report to the Balaton Group
iv
3.3. Fundamental orientations of systems: basic orientors 29
Environmental and system properties cause 29
distinct orientations in systems
Basic orientors represent basic system interests 30
Orientors as normative guidelines; finding indicators 32
of orientor satisfaction
Basic orientors are unique: one orientor cannot 32
substitute for another
The basic orientor currently ‘in the minimum’ is the 33
limiting factor of system development
3.4.Other evidence of basic orientors and their role 34
Evidence of basic orientors is found in many 34
fields of science
4. What indicators to select? Unavoidable choice 39
4.1. The general scheme: basic orientors provide a checklist 39
Illustrative examples 39
Application to sustainable development 39
4.2. Indicators for dynamic systems in a dynamic environment 41
Rates of change, intrinsic dynamics and system pace 41
depend on system structure
Delays, early warning and the role of models 42
4.3. Is there enough time for corrections? 43
Defining Biesiot indicators
Response time and respite time 43
Biesiot indicators for threats to basic orientors 44
Quantification with Biesiot indicators and visualization 45
of the state of viability
4.4. The cyclical nature of system evolution and indicators 46
of sustainability
Growth and decay in real systems 46
Indicator emphasis changes during the 47
development cycle
The need for flexibility and periodic revision of 47
indicator sets
Indicators for Sustainable Development: Theory, Method, Applications
A Report to the Balaton Group
v
4.5. The horizon of attention 48
Essential systems and multidimensional viability: 48
the need for many indicators
Looking for the weakest links 48
Comparable results of sustainability assessments 49
despite subjective choice
The horizon of attention defines indicator selection 50
Indicator selection can be independent of ideology 51
4.6. The horizon of responsibility 52
The decision for sustainable development defines 52
a horizon of responsibility
Ethical choice is unavoidable 53
4.7. Arguments for a wide horizon of responsibility 54
Different ethical principles have different consequences 54
for sustainability
Protecting evolutionary potential by a wide horizon 54
of responsibility
Using the Principle of Partnership to guide 55
indicator selection
Relationship between ethics and the systems view 55
5. Defining indicator sets: procedure 57
5.1. The procedure: a summary 57
5.2. Conceptual understanding of the total system 57
5.3. Identifying representative indicators 59
Recursive scheme for finding indicators of viability 59
Reducing the number of indicators to a manageable set 60
Adding detail: orientor hierarchies 61
Systematic approach to asking the relevant questions 62
Other criteria for indicators of sustainable development 62
5.4.Quantifying basic orientor satisfaction 63
Viability assessment may not have to be quantitative 63
Quantitative sustainability assessment 63
5.5. Participative process of indicator selection 64
Role of scientific method 64
Role of experts and the need for a participative process 65
The Seattle process 66
Indicators for Sustainable Development: Theory, Method, Applications
A Report to the Balaton Group
vi
6. Defining and using indicator sets: examples 69
6.1. Sample applications: overview 69
6.2. Assessment of global sustainability dynamics 69
Objectives 69
Method and database 70
Formalizing the sustainability assessment process 71
Indicator selection and orientor satisfaction assessment 72
Indicators and assessment functions for the human system 75
Indicators and assessment functions for the support system 76
Indicators and assessment functions for the natural system 78
Dynamics of orientor satisfaction 1950 to 2000 81
Discussion and conclusions 84
6.3. Compact indicator sets 84
Indicator set for a city: Seattle 85
Indicator set for a state: Upper Austria 87
Indicator set of a country: New Zealand 93
Indicator set for a global region 93
6.4. Extensive indicator set for a global region 93
7. Summary, conclusions, outlook 107
Notes 111
References 118